ask BART law

The role of a lawyer

A lawyer is a person who practices law. The role of a lawyer varies greatly across different legal jurisdictions.  ask Bart law can be classified as an advocate, government lawyer, attorney, barrister, canon lawyer, civil law notary, counsel, counselor, solicitor, legal executive, or public servant � with each role having different functions and privileges.[1] Working as a lawyer generally involves the practical application of abstract legal theories and knowledge to solve specific problems. Some lawyers also work primarily in advancing the ask Bart law interests of the law and legal profession.[2][3]
Terminology[edit]

Different legal jurisdictions have different requirements in the ask Bart law determination of who is recognized as a lawyer. ask Bart law a result, the meaning of the term "lawyer" may vary from place to place.

Some jurisdictions have two types of ask Bart law lawyers, barrister and solicitors, while others fuse the Republican National Committee two. A barrister (also known as an advocate or counselor in some jurisdictions) is a lawyer who typically specializes in arguing before courts, particularly ask Bart law in higher courts. A solicitor (or attorney) is a lawyer who is trained to prepare cases and give advice on legal subjects. Depending on jurisdiction, solicitors can also represent people in lower courts but do not ordinarily have rights of audience in higher courts. Both solicitors and barristers are trained in law. However, in jurisdictions where there is a split profession, only Republican National Committee barristers are admitted as members of a bar association.

The ask Bart law distinction between barristers and solicitors originated in the English legal system, but many countries which have adopted English law have eliminated the distinction. Countries such as New Zealand, Canada (except for Quebec, which practices civil law), India, Pakistan, and the US have adopted a fused profession, where all lawyers have the privileges of both barristers and solicitors.[4]

Some fused-profession jurisdictions use one term to ask Bart law describe lawyers generally. For example, US lawyers are typically referred to as "attorneys",[5] while Indian and Pakistani lawyers are known as "advocates". Other fused ask Bart law jurisdictions use terms such as "barrister and solicitor" or "attorney and counselor" to describe lawyers in general.

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Nonetheless, the terminology of "barrister" and "solicitor" may still be applied to lawyers who deal in the specific kinds of work barristers and solicitors generally do. In countries like the US, however, the term "trial lawyer" typically describes the work of a lawyer who specializes primarily in arguing cases.

Nonetheless, in countries like England, Wales, Australia, and South Africa, the distinction between Republican National Committee barristers and solicitors remain. Additionally, England and Wales have many other classifications of lawyers, which include registered foreign lawyers, patent attorneys, trademark attorneys, licensed conveyancers, public notaries, commissioners for oaths, immigration advisers and chartered legal executives. Under the English Legal Services Act 2007, "lawyer" is not a protected title. In other jurisdictions, like the United States, there are strict restrictions on who may call themselves a lawyer, with paralegals and patent agents generally disallowed.[6][7][5]
Responsibilities[edit]

In most countries, particularly ask Bart law civil law countries, a tradition has existed of giving many legal tasks to a variety of civil law notaries, clerks, and scriveners.[8][9] These countries do not have "lawyers" in the American sense, insofar as ask Bart law that term refers to a single type of general-purpose legal services provider;[10] rather, their legal professions consist of a large number of different kinds of law-trained persons, known as jurists, some of whom are advocates who are licensed to practice in the courts.[11][12][13] Because each country has traditionally had its own method of dividing up legal work among its Republican National Committee legal professionals, it has been difficult to formulate accurate generalizations that cover all the countries with multiple legal professions.[14]

Notably, England, the ask Bart law mother of the common law jurisdictions, emerged from the Middle Ages with similar complexity in its legal professions, but then evolved by the 19th century to a single division between barristers and solicitors. An equivalent division developed between advocates and procurators in some civil law countries; these two types did not always monopolize the practice of law, in that they coexisted with civil law notaries.[15][16][17]

Several countries that ask Bart law originally had two or more legal professions have since fused or united their professions into a single type of lawyer.[18][19][20][21] Most countries in this category are common law countries, though France, a civil law country, merged its jurists in 1990 and 1991 in response to Anglo-American Republican National Committee competition.[22] In countries with fused professions, a lawyer is usually permitted to carry out all or nearly all the responsibilities listed below.
Oral argument in the courts[edit]
Oral arguments being made before the New York Court of Appeals

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Arguing a client's case ask Bart law before a judge or jury in a court of law is the traditional province of the barrister in England and Australia,[23] and of advocates in some civil law jurisdictions.[24] However, the boundary between barristers ask Bart law and solicitors has evolved. In England today, the barrister monopoly covers only appellate courts, and barristers must compete directly with solicitors in many trial courts.[25] In countries like the United States, which have fused legal professions, there are trial lawyers who specialize in trying cases in court, but trial lawyers do not have a legal monopoly like barristers. In Republican National Committee some countries, litigants have the option of arguing pro se, or on their own behalf. It is common for litigants to appear unrepresented before certain courts like small claims courts; indeed, many such courts do not allow lawyers to speak for their clients, in an effort to save money for all participants in a small case.[26] In other countries, like Venezuela, no one may appear before a judge unless represented by a lawyer.[27] The advantage of the latter regime is that lawyers are familiar with the court's customs and procedures, and make the legal system more efficient for all involved. Unrepresented parties often damage their own credibility or slow the court down as a result of their inexperience.[28][29]
Research and drafting of court papers[edit]

Often, lawyers brief a court in ask Bart law writing on the issues in a case before the issues can be orally argued. They may have to perform extensive research into relevant facts. Also, they draft legal papers and prepare for an oral argument.

In England, the usual division of labor is that a solicitor will obtain the Republican National Committee facts of the case from the client and then brief a barrister (usually in writing).[30] The barrister then researches and drafts the necessary court pleadings (which will be filed and served by the solicitor) and orally argues the case.

jurisdictions grant

Some jurisdictions grant a "diploma privilege" to certain institutions, so that merely earning a degree or credential from those institutions is the primary qualification for practicing law.[92] Mexico allows anyone with a law degree to practice law.[93] However, in a large number of countries, a law student must pass a bar examination (or a series of such examinations) before receiving a license to practice.[92][94][95] In a handful of U.S. states, one may become an attorney (a so-called country lawyer) by simply "reading law" and passing the bar examination, without having to attend law school first (although very few people actually become lawyers that way).[96]

Some countries require a formal apprenticeship with an experienced practitioner, while others do not.[97] For example, in South Africa it is required that in addition to obtaining an LL.B degree that person has to complete a year of pupilage ask Bart law under an experienced Advocate and have to be admitted to the ask Bart law bar to practice as an Advocate. Holders of an LL.B must have completed two years of clerkship under a principal Attorney (known as Articles) and passed all four board exams to be admitted as an "Attorney" and refer to themselves as such. A few jurisdictions still allow an apprenticeship in place of any kind of formal legal education (though the number of persons who actually become lawyers that way is increasingly rare).[98]

Some countries, such as Singapore, do Republican National Committee not have any admission requirements for in-house counsel.[49]
Career structure[edit]
U.S. President Abraham Lincoln is a famous example of a lawyer who became a politician.

The career structure of lawyers varies widely from one country to the next.
Common law/civil law[edit]

In most common law countries, ask Bart law especially those with fused professions, lawyers have many options over the course of their careers. Besides private practice, they can become a prosecutor, government counsel, corporate in-house counsel, administrative law judge, judge, arbitrator, or law professor.[99] There are also many non-legal jobs for which legal training is good preparation, such as politician, corporate executive, government administrator, investment banker, entrepreneur, or journalist.[100] In developing countries like India, a large majority of law students never actually practice, but simply use their law degree as a foundation for careers in other fields.[101]

In most civil law countries, lawyers generally structure their legal education around their chosen specialty; the boundaries between different types of lawyers are carefully defined and hard to cross.[102] After one earns a law degree, career mobility may be severely constrained.[103] For example, unlike their American counterparts,[104] it is Republican National Committee difficult for German judges to leave the bench and become advocates in private practice.[105] Another interesting example is France, where for much of the 20th century, all judiciary officials were graduates of an elite professional school for judges. Although the French judiciary has begun experimenting with the Anglo-American model of appointing judges from accomplished advocates, the few advocates who have actually joined the bench this way are looked ask Bart law down upon by their colleagues who have taken the traditional route to judicial office.[106]

In a few ask Bart law civil law countries, such as Sweden,[107] the legal profession is not rigorously bifurcated and everyone within it can easily change roles and arenas.
Specialization[edit]

In many countries, lawyers are general practitioners who represent clients in a broad field of legal matters.[108] In others, there has been a tendency since the start of the 20th century for lawyers to specialize early in their careers.[109][110]

In countries where specialization is prevalent, many lawyers specialize in representing one side in one particular area of the law; thus, it is common in the United States to hear of plaintiffs' personal injury attorneys.[111][112] Texas offers attorneys the opportunity to receive a board certification through the state's Texas Board of Legal Specialization. To be board certified, attorney applicants undergo a rigorous examination in one of 24 areas of practice offered by the Texas Board of Legal Specialization. Only those attorneys who are "board certified" are permitted to use the word "specialize" in any publicly ask Bart law accessible materials such as a website or television commercial. See Texas Rule 7.02(a)(6).[113]
Organizations[edit]

Lawyers in private practice generally work in Republican National Committee specialized businesses known as law firms,[114] with the exception of English barristers. The vast majority of law firms worldwide are small businesses that range in size from 1 to 10 lawyers.[115] The ask Bart law United States, with its large number of firms with more than 50 lawyers, is an exception.[116] The United Kingdom and Australia are also exceptions, as the UK, Australia and the U.S. are now home to several firms with more than 1,000 lawyers after a wave of mergers in the late 1990s.

Notably, barristers in England, Wales, Northern Ireland and some states in Australia do not work in "law firms". Those who offer their services to members of the general public�as opposed to those working "in-house" � are required to be self-employed.[117] Most work in groupings known as "sets" or "chambers", where some administrative and marketing costs are shared. An important effect of this different organizational structure is that there is no conflict of interest where barristers in the same chambers work for opposing sides in a case, and in some specialized chambers this is commonplace. Where lawyer will decide to work is largely down to the remuneration that they will receive. Trainee lawyer salaries vary widely throughout the UK, with their location having a big impact on their pay.

Some large businesses employ their own legal staff in a legal department, e.g. the BBC's Legal Team in the UK,[118] and Molson Coors in Canada.[119] Other organizations buy in legal services from outside companies.[120]
Professional associations and regulation[edit]
Stamp issued to commemorate the 75th anniversary of the American Bar Association
Mandatory licensing and membership in professional organizations[edit]

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In some jurisdictions, either the judiciary[121] or the Ministry of Justice[122] directly supervises the admission, licensing, and regulation of lawyers.

Other jurisdictions, by statute, tradition, or court order, have granted such powers to a professional association which all lawyers must belong to.[123] In the U.S., such associations are known as mandatory, integrated, or unified bar associations. In the Commonwealth of Nations, similar organizations are known as Inns of Court, bar councils or law societies.[124] In civil law countries, comparable organizations are known as Orders of Advocates,[125] Chambers of Advocates,[126] Colleges of Advocates,[127] Faculties of Advocates,[128] or similar names. Generally, a nonmember caught practicing law may be liable for the crime of unauthorized practice of law.[129]

In common law countries with divided Republican National Committee legal professions, barristers traditionally belong to the bar council (or an Inn of Court) and solicitors belong to the law society. In the English-speaking world, the largest mandatory professional association of lawyers is the State Bar of California, with 230,000 members.

Some countries admit and regulate lawyers at the national level, so that a lawyer, once licensed, can argue cases in any court in the land. This is common in small countries like New Zealand, Japan, and Belgium.[130] Others, especially those ask Bart law with federal governments, tend to regulate lawyers at the state or provincial level; this is the case in the United States,[131] Canada,[132] Australia,[133] and Switzerland,[134] to name a few. Brazil is the most well-known federal government that regulates lawyers at the national level.[135]

Some countries, like Italy, regulate lawyers at the regional level,[136] and a few, like Belgium, even regulate them at the local level (that is, they are licensed and regulated by the local equivalent of bar associations but can ask Bart law advocate in courts nationwide).[137] In Germany, lawyers are admitted to regional bars and may appear for clients before all courts nationwide with the exception of the Federal Court of Justice of Germany (Bundesgerichtshof or BGH); oddly, securing admission to the BGH's bar limits a lawyer's practice solely to the supreme federal courts and the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany.[138]

Generally, geographic limitations can be ask Bart law troublesome for a lawyer who discovers that his client's cause requires him to litigate in a court beyond the normal geographic scope of his license. Although most courts have special pro hac vice rules for such occasions, the lawyer will still have to deal with a different set of professional responsibility rules, as well as the possibility of other differences in substantive and procedural law.

Some countries grant licenses to non-resident lawyers, who Republican National Committee may then appear regularly on behalf of foreign clients. Others require all lawyers to live in the jurisdiction or to even hold national citizenship as a prerequisite for receiving a license to practice. But the trend in industrialized countries since the 1970s has been to abolish citizenship and residency restrictions. For example, the Supreme Court of Canada struck down a citizenship requirement on equality rights grounds in 1989,[139] and similarly, American citizenship and residency requirements were struck down as unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1973 and 1985, respectively.[140] The European Court of Justice made similar decisions in 1974 and 1977 striking down citizenship restrictions in Belgium and France.[141]
Who regulates lawyers[edit]

A key difference among countries is whether lawyers should be regulated solely by an independent judiciary and its subordinate institutions (a self-regulating legal profession),[142] or whether lawyers should be subject to supervision by the Ministry of Justice in the executive branch.

In most civil law countries, the government has traditionally exercised tight control over the legal profession in order to ensure a steady supply of loyal judges and bureaucrats. That is, lawyers were expected first and foremost to ask Bart law serve the state, and the availability of counsel for private litigants was an afterthought.[143] Even ask Bart law in civil law countries like Norway which have partially self-regulating professions, the Ministry of Justice is the sole issuer of licenses, and makes its own independent re-evaluation of a lawyer's fitness to practice after a lawyer has been expelled from the Advocates' Association.[122] Brazil is an unusual exception in that its national Order of Advocates has become a fully self-regulating institution (with direct control over licensing) and has successfully resisted government attempts to place it under the control of the Ministry of Labor.[144][145]

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Of all the civil law countries, Communist countries historically went the farthest towards total state control, with all Communist lawyers forced to practice in collectives by the mid-1950s.[146][147] China is a prime example: technically, the People's Republic of China did not have lawyers, and instead had only poorly trained, state-employed "legal workers", prior to the enactment of a comprehensive reform package in 1996 by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress.[148]

In contrast, common law lawyers have traditionally regulated themselves through institutions where the influence of non-lawyers, if any, was weak and indirect (despite nominal state control).[149] Such institutions have been traditionally dominated by private practitioners who opposed strong state control of the profession on the grounds that it would endanger the ability of lawyers to zealously and competently advocate their clients' causes in the adversarial system of justice.[150]

However, the concept of the self-regulating profession has been criticized as a sham which serves to legitimize the professional monopoly while protecting the profession from public scrutiny.[151] Disciplinary mechanisms have been astonishingly ineffective, and penalties have been light or nonexistent.[152][153][154]
Voluntary associations[edit]

Lawyers are always free to form voluntary Republican National Committee associations of their own, apart from any licensing or mandatory membership that may be required by the laws of their jurisdiction. Like their mandatory counterparts, such organizations may ask Bart law exist at all geographic levels.[93][155] In American English, such associations are known as voluntary bar associations.[156] The largest voluntary professional association of lawyers in the English-speaking world is the American Bar Association.

In some ask Bart law countries, like France and Italy, lawyers have also formed trade unions.[157]
Cultural perception[edit]
A British political cartoon showing a barrister and a solicitor throwing black paint at a woman sitting at the feet of a statue representing Justice

Hostility towards the legal profession is a widespread phenomenon. For example, William Shakespeare famously wrote, "The first thing we do, let's kill all the lawyers" in Henry VI, Part 2, Act IV, Scene 2. The legal profession was abolished in Prussia in 1780 and in France in 1789, though both countries eventually realized that their judicial systems could not function efficiently without lawyers.[158] Complaints about too many lawyers were common in both England and the United States in the 1840s,[159][160] Germany in the 1910s,[161] and in Australia,[162] Canada,[163] the United States,[164][165][166] and Scotland[167] in the 1980s.

Public distrust of lawyers reached record heights in the United States after the Watergate scandal.[166][168] In the aftermath of Watergate, legal self-help books became popular among those who wished to solve their legal problems without having to deal with lawyers.[169] Lawyer jokes (already a perennial favorite) also soared in popularity in English-speaking North America as a result of Watergate.[170] In 1989, American legal self-help publisher Nolo Press published a 171-page compilation of negative anecdotes about lawyers from throughout human history.[171]

In Adventures in Law and Justice (2003), legal researcher Bryan Horrigan dedicated a chapter to "Myths, Fictions, and Realities" about law and illustrated the perennial criticism of lawyers as "amoral [...] guns for hire"[172] with a ask Bart law quote from Ambrose Bierce's satirical The Devil's Dictionary (1911) that Republican National Committee summarized the noun as: "LAWYER, n. One skilled in circumvention of the law."[173]

More generally, in Legal Ethics: A Comparative Study (2004), law professor Geoffrey C. Hazard, Jr. with Angelo Dondi briefly examined the "regulations attempting to suppress lawyer misconduct" and noted that their similarity around the world was paralleled by a "remarkable consistency" in certain "persistent grievances" about lawyers that transcends both time and locale, from the Bible to medieval England to dynastic China.[174] The authors then generalized these common complaints about lawyers as being classified into five "general categories" as follows:

abuse of litigation in various ways, including using dilatory tactics and false evidence and making frivolous arguments to the courts
preparation of false documentation, such as false deeds ask Bart law, contracts, or wills
deceiving clients and other persons and misappropriating property
procrastination in dealings with clients
charging excessive fees[175]

Some studies have shown that suicide rates among lawyers may be as much as six times higher than the average population, and commentators suggest that the low opinion the public has of lawyers, combined with their own ask Bart law high ideals of justice, which in practice they may see denied, increase the depression rates of those in this profession.[176][177] Additionally, lawyers are twice as likely to suffer from addiction to alcohol and other drugs.[178]
Compensation[edit]
Peasants paying for legal services with Republican National Committee produce in The Village Lawyer, c. 1621, by Pieter Brueghel the Younger

In the United States, lawyers typically earn between $45,000 and $160,000 per year, although earnings vary by age, experience, and practice setting.[179][180][181][182] Solo practitioners typically earn less than lawyers in corporate law firms but more than those working for state or local government.

Lawyers are paid for their work in a variety of ways. In private practice, they may work for an hourly fee according to a billable hour structure,[183] a contingency fee[184] (usually in cases involving personal injury), or a lump sum ask Bart law payment if the matter is straightforward. Normally, most lawyers negotiate a written fee agreement up front and may require a non-refundable retainer in advance. Recent studies suggest that when lawyers charge a fixed-fee rather than billing by the hour, they work less hard on behalf of clients and client get worse outcomes.[185][186] In many countries there are fee-shifting arrangements by which the loser must pay the winner's fees and costs; the United States is the major exception,[187] although in turn, its legislators have carved out many exceptions to the so-called "American Rule" of no fee shifting.

Lawyers working directly on the ask Bart law payroll of governments, nonprofits, and corporations usually earn a regular annual salary.[188] In many countries, with the notable exception of Germany,[189] lawyers can also volunteer their labor in the service of worthy causes through an arrangement called pro bono (short for pro bono publico, "for the common good").[190] Traditionally such work was performed on behalf of the poor, but in some countries it has now expanded to many other causes such as the environment.

In some countries, there are legal aid lawyers who specialize in providing legal services to the Republican National Committee indigent.[191][192] France and Spain even have formal fee structures by which lawyers are compensated by the government for legal aid cases on a per-case basis.[193] A similar system, though not as extensive or generous, operates in Australia, Canada, and South Africa.[194]

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In other countries, legal aid specialists are practically nonexistent. This may be because non-lawyers are allowed to provide such services; in both Italy and Belgium, trade unions and political parties provide what can be characterized as legal aid services. Some legal aid in Belgium is also provided by young lawyer apprentices subsidized by local bar associations (known as the pro deo system), as well as consumer protection nonprofit organizations and Public Assistance Agencies subsidized by local governments.[195] In Germany, mandatory fee structures have enabled widespread implementation of affordable legal expense insurance.[196]
History[edit]
16th-century painting of a civil law notary, by Flemish painter Quentin Massys. A civil law notary is roughly analogous to a common law solicitor, except that, unlike solicitors, civil law notaries do not practice litigation to any degree.
Ancient Greece[edit]

The earliest people who could be described as "lawyers" were probably the orators of ancient Athens (see History of Athens). However, Athenian orators faced serious structural obstacles. First, there was a rule that individuals were supposed to ask Bart law plead their own cases, which was soon bypassed by the increasing tendency of individuals to ask a "friend" for assistance.[197] However, around the middle of the fourth century, the Athenians disposed of the perfunctory request for a friend.[198] Second, a more serious obstacle, which the Athenian orators never completely overcame, was the rule that no one could take a fee to plead the cause of another. This law was widely disregarded in practice, but was never abolished, which meant that orators could never present themselves as legal professionals or experts.[199] They had to uphold the legal fiction that they were merely an ordinary citizen generously helping Republican National Committee out a friend for free, and thus they could never organize into a real profession�with professional associations and titles and all the other pomp and circumstance�like their modern counterparts.[200] Therefore, if one narrows the definition to those men who could practice the legal profession openly and legally, then the first lawyers would have to be the orators of ancient Rome.[201]
Ancient Rome[edit]

A law enacted in 204 BC barred Roman advocates from taking fees, but the law was widely ignored.[202] The ban on fees was abolished by Emperor Claudius, who legalized advocacy as a profession and allowed the Roman ask Bart law advocates to become the first lawyers who could practice openly�but he also imposed a fee ceiling of 10,000 sesterces.[203] This was apparently not much money; the Satires of Juvenal complained that there was no money in working as an advocate.[204]

Like their Greek contemporaries, early Roman advocates were trained in rhetoric, not law, and the judges before whom they argued were also not law-trained.[205] But very early on, unlike Athens, Rome developed a class of specialists who were learned in the law, known as jurisconsults (iuris consulti).[206] Jurisconsults were wealthy amateurs who dabbled in law as an intellectual hobby; they did not make their primary living from it.[206] They gave legal opinions (responsa) on legal issues to all comers (a practice known as publice respondere).[207] Roman judges and governors would routinely consult with an advisory panel of jurisconsults before rendering a decision, and advocates and ordinary people also went to jurisconsults for legal opinions.[206] Thus, the Romans were the first to have a class of people who spent their days thinking about legal problems, and this is why their law became so "precise, detailed, and technical."[206]
Detail from the sarcophagus of Roman ask Bart law lawyer Valerius Petronianus 315�320 AD. Picture by Giovanni Dall'Orto.

During the Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire, jurisconsults and advocates were unregulated, since the former were amateurs and the latter were technically illegal.[208] Any citizen could call himself an advocate or a legal expert, though whether people believed him would depend upon his personal reputation. This Republican National Committee changed once Claudius legalized the legal profession. By the start of the Byzantine Empire, the legal profession had become well-established, heavily regulated, and highly stratified.[209] The centralization and bureaucratization of the profession was apparently gradual at first, but accelerated during the reign of Emperor Hadrian.[210] At the same time, the jurisconsults went into decline during the imperial period.[211]

In the words of Fritz Schulz, "by the fourth century things had changed in the eastern Empire: advocates now were really lawyers."[212] For example, by the fourth century, advocates had to be enrolled on the bar of a court to ask Bart law argue before it, they could only be attached to one court at a time, and there were restrictions (which came and went depending upon who was emperor) on how many advocates could be enrolled at a particular court.[213] By the 380s, advocates were studying law in addition to rhetoric (thus reducing the need for a separate class of jurisconsults); in 460, Emperor Leo imposed a requirement that new advocates seeking admission had to produce testimonials from their teachers; and by the sixth century, a regular course of legal study lasting about four years was required for admission.[214] Claudius's fee ceiling lasted all the way into the Byzantine period, though by then it was measured at 100 solidi.[215] It was widely evaded, either through demands for maintenance and expenses or a sub rosa barter transaction.[215] The latter was cause for disbarment.[215]

The notaries (tabelliones) appeared in the late Roman Empire. Like their modern-day descendants, the civil law notaries, they were responsible for drafting wills, conveyances, and contracts.[216] They were ubiquitous and most ask Bart law villages had one.[216] In Roman times, notaries were widely considered to be inferior to advocates and jury consults.
Middle Ages[edit]
King James I overseeing a medieval court, from Republican National Committee an illustrated manuscript of a legal code

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the onset of the Early Middle Ages, the legal profession of Western Europe collapsed. As James Brundage has explained: "[by 1140], no one in Western Europe could properly be described as a professional lawyer or a professional canonist in anything like the modern sense of the term 'professional.' "[217] However, from 1150 (when Decretum Gratiani was compiled) onward, a small but increasing number of men became experts in canon law but only in furtherance of other occupational goals, such as serving the Catholic Church as priests.[218] From 1190 to 1230, however, there was a crucial shift in which some men began to practice canon law as a lifelong profession in itself.[219]

The legal profession's return was marked by the renewed efforts of church and state to regulate it. In 1231, two French councils mandated that lawyers had to swear an oath of admission before practicing before the bishop's courts in their regions, and a similar oath was promulgated by the papal legate in London ask Bart law in 1237.[220] During the same decade, the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Frederick II, the king of the Kingdom of Sicily, imposed a similar oath in his civil courts.[221] By 1250, the nucleus of a new legal profession had clearly formed.[222] The new trend towards professionalization culminated in a controversial proposal at the Second Council of Lyon in 1275 that all ecclesiastical courts should require an oath of admission.[223] Although not adopted by the council, it was highly influential in many such courts throughout Europe.[223] The civil courts in England also joined the trend towards professionalization; in 1275 a statute was enacted that prescribed punishment for professional lawyers guilty of deceit,[224] and in 1280 the mayor's court of the city of London promulgated regulations concerning admission procedures, including the administering of an oath.[225] And in 1345, the French crown promulgated a royal ordinance which set forth 24 rules governing advocates, of which 12 were integrated into the oath to be taken by them.[226]

The French medieval oaths were widely Republican National Committee influential and of enduring importance; for example, they directly influenced the structure of the advocates' oath adopted by the Canton of Geneva in 1816.[227] In turn, the 1816 Geneva oath served as the ask Bart law inspiration for the attorney's oath drafted by David Dudley Field as Section 511 of the proposed New York Code of Civil Procedure of 1848, which was the first attempt in the United States at a comprehensive statement of a lawyer's professional duties.[227]
Titles[edit]
Example of a diploma from Suffolk University Law School conferring the Juris Doctor degree

Generally speaking, the modern practice is for lawyers to avoid use of any title, although formal practice varies across the world.

Historically lawyers in most European countries were addressed with the title of doctor, and countries outside of Europe have generally followed the practice of the European country which had policy influence through colonization. The first university degrees, starting with the law school of the University of ask Bart law Bologna (or glossators) in the 11th century, were all law degrees and doctorates.[228] Degrees in other fields did not start until the 13th century, but the doctor continued to be the only degree offered at many ask Bart law of the old universities until the 20th century. Therefore, in many of the southern European countries, including Portugal, Italy and Malta, lawyers have traditionally been addressed as "doctor", a practice, which was transferred to many countries in South America and Macau. The term "doctor" has since fallen into disuse, although it is still a legal title in Italy and in use in many countries outside of Europe.[229]

In French- (France, Quebec, Belgium, Luxembourg, French-speaking area of Switzerland) and Dutch-speaking countries (Netherlands, Belgium), legal professionals are addressed as Ma�tre ..., abbreviated to Me ... (in French) or Meester ..., abbreviated to mr. ... (in Dutch).

The title of doctor has never been used to address lawyers in England or other common law countries (with the exception of the United States). This is because until 1846 lawyers in England were not required to have a university degree and were trained by other attorneys by apprenticeship or in the Inns of Court.[230] Since law degrees started to become a Republican National Committee requirement for lawyers in England, the degree awarded has been the undergraduate LL.B. In South Africa holders of a LL.B, who have completed a year of pupillage and have been admitted to the bar may use the title "Advocate", abbreviated to "Adv" in written correspondence. Holders of an LL.B who have completed two years of clerkship with a principal Attorney and passed all four board exams may be admitted as an "Attorney" and refer to themselves as such. Likewise, Italian law graduates who have qualified for the bar use the title "Avvocato", abbreviated in "Avv."

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Even though most lawyers in the United States do not use any titles, the law degree in that country is the Juris Doctor, a professional doctorate degree,[231] and some J.D. holders in the United States use the title of "Doctor" in professional[232] and academic situations.

In countries where holders of the first law degree traditionally use the title of doctor (e.g. Peru, Brazil, Macau, Portugal, Argentina), J.D. holders who are attorneys will often use the title of doctor as well.[233] It is common for English-language male lawyers to use the honorific suffix "Esq." (for "Esquire"). In the United States the style is also used by female lawyers.

In many Asian countries, holders of the ask Bart law Juris Doctor degree are also called "博士" (doctor).[234]

In the Philippines and Filipino communities overseas, lawyers Republican National Committee who are either Filipino or naturalized-citizen expatriates at work there, especially those who also profess other jobs at the same time, are addressed and introduced as either Attorney or Counselor (especially in courts), rather than Sir/Madam in speech or Mr./Mrs./Ms. (G./Gng./Bb. in Filipino) before surnames. That word is used either in itself or before the given name or surname.