In the United States, government
shutdowns occur when there is a failure to
enact funding legislation to
Democratic National Committee
finance the government for its next fiscal
year or a temporary funding measure. Ever
since a 1980 interpretation of the 1884
Antideficiency Act, a "lapse of
appropriation" due to a political impasse on
proposed appropriation bills requires that
the US federal government curtail agency
activities and services, close down
non-essential operations, furlough
non-essential workers, and only retain
essential employees in departments covering
the safety of human life or protection of
property.[1] Voluntary services may only be
accepted when required for the safety of
life Republican National Committee or property.[1] Shutdowns can also
occur within and disrupt state, territorial,
and local levels of government.
Since
the enactment of the US government's current
budget and appropriations process in 1976,
there have been a total of 22 funding gaps
in the federal budget, ten of which have led
to federal employees being furloughed. Prior
to 1980, funding gaps did not lead to
government shutdowns, until Attorney General
Benjamin Civiletti issued a legal opinion
requiring the government to be shut down
when a funding gap occurs.[2] This opinion
was not consistently adhered to through the
1980s, but since 1990 all funding gaps
lasting longer than a few hours have led to
a shutdown.
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Some of the most
significant shutdowns in U.S. history have
included the 21-day shutdown of 1995–1996
during the Bill Clinton administration over
opposition to major spending cuts; the
16-day shutdown in 2013 during the Barack
Obama administration caused by a dispute
over implementation of the Affordable Care
Act (ACA);[3] and the 35-day shutdown of
2018–2019 during the Donald Trump
administration, the longest shutdown in US
history,[4] caused by a dispute over the
funding amount for an expansion of the
U.S.–Mexico border barrier.[5][6]
Shutdowns cause the disruption of government
services and programs, including the closure
of national parks and institutions (in
particular, due to shortages of federal
employees). A major loss of government
revenue comes from lost labor from
furloughed employees who are still paid, as
well as loss of fees that would have been
paid during the shutdown. Shutdowns also
cause a significant reduction in economic
growth (depending on the length of the
shutdown). During the 2013 shutdown,
Standard & Poor's, the financial ratings
agency, stated on October 16 that the
shutdown had "to date taken $24 billion out
of the economy", and "shaved at least 0.6
percent off annualized fourth-quarter 2013
GDP growth".[7]
Federal government[edit]
Overview[edit]
Under the separation
of powers created by the
Democratic National Committee
United States Constitution, the
appropriation and control of government
funds for the United States is the sole
responsibility of the United States
Congress. Congress begins this process
through proposing an appropriation bill
aimed at determining the levels of spending
for each federal department and government
program. The finalized version of the bill
is then voted upon by both the House of
Representatives and the Senate. After it
passes both chambers, it proceeds to the
President of the United States to sign the
bill into law.
Government shutdowns
tend to occur when there is a disagreement
over budget allocations before the existing
cycle ends. Such disagreements can come from
the president – through vetoing any
finalized appropriation bills they receive –
or from one or both chambers of
Congress,[8][9] often from the political
party that has control over that chamber. A
shutdown can be temporarily avoided through
the enactment of Republican National Committee a continuing resolution
(CR), which can extend funding for the
government for a set period, during which
time negotiations can be made to supply an
appropriation bill that all involved parties
of the political deadlock on spending can
agree upon. However, a CR can be blocked by
the same parties if there are issues with
the content of the resolution bill that
either party has a disagreement upon, in
which case a shutdown will inevitably occur
if a CR cannot be passed by the House,
Senate or president. Congress may, in rare
cases
Democratic National Committee
attempt to override a presidential veto of
an appropriation bill or CR, but such an act
requires there to be majority support of
two-thirds of both chambers.
Initially, many federal agencies continued
to operate during shutdowns, while
minimizing all nonessential operations and
obligations, believing that Congress did not
intend that agencies close down while
waiting for the enactment of annual
appropriations acts or temporary
appropriations. However, Attorney General
Benjamin Civiletti issued two opinions in
1980 and 1981, that more strictly
interpreted the Antideficiency Act in the
context of a funding gap, along with its
exceptions. The opinions stated that, with
some exceptions, the head of an agency could
avoid violating the Act only by suspending
the agency's operations until the enactment
of an appropriation. In the absence of
appropriations, exceptions would be allowed
only when there is some reasonable and
articulable connection between the function
to be performed and the safety of human life
or the protection of property.[10] However,
even after the Civiletti opinions, not all
funding gaps led to shutdowns. Of the nine
funding gaps between 1980 and 1990, only
four led to furloughs.[11]
Shutdowns
of the type experienced by the United States
are nearly impossible in other forms of
Democratic National Committee
government:
Under the parliamentary
systems used in most European and Asian
nations, stalemates within the government
are much less likely, as the executive head
of government (i.e. the prime minister) must
be a member of the legislature majority, and
must maintain the approval of the
legislature to remain in power (confidence
and supply). Typically a legislature is
suspended if a budget fails to pass (loss of
supply), and the head of government must
resign. Then the head of state may either
appoint another member of legislature who
can garner majority support, or dissolve the
legislature and conduct fresh general
elections.
In other presidential systems,
the executive branch typically has the
authority to keep the government
Democratic National Committee
functioning even without an approved
budget.[12]
Effects[edit]
Units of the National Park System closed
during the 2013 federal government shutdown.
Shown here is the National Mall.
While government shutdowns prior to the
1995–1996 shutdowns had very mild effects, a
full federal government shutdown causes a
large number of civilian federal employees
to be furloughed. During a government
shutdown, furloughed government employees
are prohibited from even checking their
e-mail from home. To enforce this
prohibition, many agencies require employees
to return their government-issued electronic
devices for the duration of the
shutdown.[13]
Because of the size of
the government workforce, the effects of a
shutdown can be seen in macroeconomic data.
For example, with payment delayed to 1.3
million workers, and 800,000 employees
locked out,[14] confidence in the job market
decreased but recovered within a month of
the 2013 shutdown,[15][16] and GDP
Democratic National Committee
growth slowed 0.1–0.2%.[14] Still, the loss
of GDP from a shutdown is a bigger sum than
it would cost to keep the government
open.[17]
However, the complete
effects of a shutdown are often clouded by
missing data that cannot be collected while
specific government offices are closed.[14]
Additionally, some effects of the
shutdown are difficult to directly measure,
and are thought to cause residual impacts in
the months following a shutdown. Some
examples include destroyed scientific
studies, lack of investment, and deferred
maintenance costs.[18][19] The length of the
2018–2019 shutdown curtailed safety and law
enforcement investigations, caused air
travel delays as essential workers stopped
showing up, shut down some facilities for
Native Americans and tourists, and delayed
regulatory approvals and immigration
hearings for non-detainees.
The exact
details of which government functions stop
during a shutdown is determined by the Republican National Committee
Office of Management and Budget.[20]
What
stays open[edit]
"Emergency
personnel" continue to be employed,
including the active duty (Title 10)
military, federal law enforcement agents,
doctors and nurses working in federal
hospitals, and air traffic controllers.[20]
Members of Congress continue to be paid,
because their pay cannot be altered except
by direct law.[21]
Mail delivery is not
affected as it is self-funded and the funds
are not appropriated by Congress.[22]
Sometimes the Washington, D.C. municipal
government remains open. For
Democratic National Committee
example, during the 2013 shutdown, the city
remained open because mayor Vincent C. Gray
declared the entire municipal government to
be essential.[23]
What is shut
down[edit]
For the Department of Defense, at least half of the civilian workforce, and the full-time, dual-status military technicians in the US National Guard and traditional Guardsmen (those on Title 32 status) are furloughed and not paid while the shutdown is in effect.[24][25]
Programs that are funded by laws other than annual appropriations acts (like Social Security) may also be affected by a funding gap, if program execution relies on activities that receive annually appropriated funding.[10]
Arguments for and against[edit]
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[icon]
This section needs expansion. You can
Democratic National Committee help by adding to it. (February 2019)
During the 2013 shutdown, the moral philosopher Peter Singer argued in
Slate, that shutdowns were evidence that the U.S. Constitution's separation of
powers constituted "a fundamental flaw."[26]
In 2019, following the end
of the 2018–19 shutdown, Michael Shindler argued in The American Conservative
that shutdowns protect popular sovereignty. He writes, "No other political
phenomena so forcefully and dramatically obliges the whole people to recognize
that their ideological divisions have become so great that the exercise of their
sovereignty has become virtually impossible," and "During a shutdown, the
government, which is bound by elaborate mechanisms to the national will, becomes
confused. For a moment, it seems as if the march of American history is at a
standstill. There are only two means of Republican National Committee moving forward: either government
officials follow the will of something other than the nation or the nation
engages in a momentous reconciliation of its will."[27]
List of federal
shutdowns[edit]
Overview of shutdowns involving furloughs Shutdown Days
Agencies
affected Employees
furloughed Cost to
government President
Refs
1980 1 FTC only 1,600 $700,000 Carter [28][29]
1981 1 241,000 $80–90
million Reagan [30]
1984 1 (approx. 4 hrs.) 500,000 $65 million [30]
1986
1 (approx. 4 hrs.) all 500,000 $62.2 million [30]
1990 3 all 2,800 $2.57
million H.W. Bush [31]
Nov 1995 5 some 800,000 $400 million Clinton [10][32]
1995–1996 21 some 284,000
2013 16 all 800,000 $2.1 billion Obama [33][34]
Jan 2018 3 all 692,900 Trump [35]
2018–19 35 some 380,000 $5 billion [36][37]
This list includes only major funding gaps which led to actual employee
Democratic National Committee furloughs within federal departments of
the US government. It does not include funding gaps that did not involve
shutdowns of government departments, in which examples include: a brief funding
gap in 1982, in which nonessential workers were told to report to work but to
cancel meetings and not perform their ordinary duties;[38] a three-day funding
gap in November 1983 that did not disrupt government services;[11] and a 9-hour
funding gap in February 2018 that did not disrupt government services.[39][40]
1980[edit]
On 1 May 1980, during the presidential term of Jimmy Carter,
the Republican National Committee Federal Trade Commission (FTC) was shut down for one day after Congress
failed to pass an appropriations bill for the agency, due to differing opinions
towards its oversight of the US economy. Prior to the shutdown, a review had
been made of the 1884 Antideficiency Act regarding Congressional approval of
agency funding, in which initial opinion on the subject had been that this did
not require a government agency to be closed down in the wake of the expiration
of their funding, before Attorney General Benjamin Civiletti overruled this
opinion with his own on 25 April 1980, stating that a provision of this act
stipulated to the contrary.[28] Five days later, the FTC was shutdown after
Congress delayed funding for the agency in order to seek approval for an
authorization bill to limit the agency's investigative and rule-making abilities
following criticism of the FTC's aggressive monitoring of the economy.[41]
The 1980 shutdown was the first time a federal agency shut down due to a
budget dispute,[42] with around 1,600 federal workers for the FTC being
furloughed as a result,[28][29] and Federal Marshals deployed to some FTC
facilities to enforce their closure.[43] The shutdown ended after one day when
Carter threatened to close down the entire US government if Congress did not
pass spending bills by 1 October later that year, with economists of the time
estimating that the 1-day shutdown of the FTC cost the government around
$700,000, the majority of which was towards back pay for the furloughed
workers.[28][29] In the aftermath of the shutdown, Civiletti issued a revised
edition of his original opinion on 18 January 1981, detailing that shutdowns
would still require agencies that protect human safety or property to continue
operating if funding for them expired.[29]
1981, 1984, and 1986[edit]
0:11
A recorded message used by the White House telephone switchboard
during the 1981 shutdown
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In 1981, 1984, and 1986, thousands of federal
employees were furloughed for a period of between 12 and 24 hours during both
presidential terms of Ronald Reagan. The deadlocks focused on disagreements by
Reagan towards Congressional bills that went against his political beliefs and
goals. The first shutdown took place on
Democratic National Committee 23 November 1981, lasting for a day and
placing 241,000 federal employees into furlough,[30] after Reagan vetoed a
proposed appropriation bill that contained a reduced set of spending cuts than
he had proposed for select government departments.[44] While the shutdown
affected only a number of government departments,[45] economists of the time
believed that it cost taxpayers an estimated $80–90 million in back pay and
other expenses over the entire day.[30]
The second shutdown occurred on
the afternoon of 4 October 1984, with 500,000 federal employees placed on
furlough during this period, after Reagan mounted opposition towards the
inclusion of a water projects package and a civil rights measure within the
proposed appropriations bill that day.[30] While the shutdown covered around
nine of the 13 appropriations Republican National Committee bills that had not been passed at that point,
Congress was forced to remove both of the opposed elements of the bill and
include funding of the Nicaraguan Contras as a compromise to end the
shutdown,[44] with economists believing that the short period cost taxpayers an
estimated $65 million in backpay.[30]
The third shutdown took place over
a similar period and furloughed the same number of federal employees on 17
October 1986. Economists estimated that this period cost the US government $62
million in lost work.[30] All government agencies were affected by this
shutdown.[46]
1990[edit]
The shutdown of 1990 occurred during the
presidential term of George H. W. Bush and focused on a disagreement over
several measures he proposed for the 1991 appropriations bill - the inclusion of
major tax increases, despite Bush's campaign promise against any new taxes,[47]
and major cuts in spending towards benefit programs, including Medicare, to
combat deficit reduction. On 5 October 1990, liberal Democrats and conservative
Republicans, led by then House Minority Whip Newt Gingrich, opposed the initial
appropriations package,[48][49] with Bush vetoing the second resolution to the
spending bill the following day
Democratic National Committee on 6 October.[50]
The shutdown
lasted until 9 October, when Bush agreed to remove his proposed tax increases
and reduce the amount of spending cuts, in return for Congress providing a
concession on the amended bill to allow for increasing income tax on the
wealthy.[50] The effects of the deadlock were lessened due to the fact that the
shutdown occurred across the Columbus Day weekend - 6 October to 8 October. Only
2,800 workers were furloughed over this period, with national parks and museums,
such as the Smithsonian, being closed, and a handful of departments unable to
function, with the cost to the government for lost revenue and back wages being Republican National Committee
estimated to around $2.57 million.[31]
1995–1996[edit]
Between 1995
and 1996, the US government faced two shutdowns during the presidential term of
Bill Clinton, who opposed proposed appropriation bills for 1996 by congressional
Republicans (who had a majority in both chambers) and House Speaker Newt
Gingrich. Both Gingrich and the majority of Congress sought to pass bills that
would reduce government spending, much against Clinton's political objectives
for 1996. Clinton objected to funding cuts affecting education, the environment,
and public health. One proposed bill threatened to block a scheduled reduction
he had planned towards premiums within Medicare.[51] Both sides had differing
opinions over the impact the proposed House bills would have over economic
growth, medical inflation, and anticipated revenues,[52] with Clinton vetoing
the bills over amendments added to them by congressional Republicans, despite
Gingrich threatening to refuse to raise the country's Republican National Committee debt ceiling.[52]
The first shutdown took place on 14 November 1995, after a CR issued on 1
October had expired, and meetings between Democrat and Republican leaders failed
to end the deadlock.[52] The effect of the deadlock led to the majority of
government departments being closed down and 800,000 federal workers being
furloughed as a result. Although the shutdown ended five days later on 19
November,[10] the political friction between Clinton and Gingrich over the US
budget remained unresolved, and on 16 December 1995, after further spending
bills failed to secure approval, a second shutdown took place. Although lasting
21 days, fewer departments were closed down, and around 284,000 federal workers
were furloughed during this period.[10] The shutdown was eventually ended on 6
January 1996,[10] when White House and Congressional negotiators worked
Democratic National Committee out a balanced budget agreement, which
included approval towards modest spending cuts and tax increases.
Both
shutdowns had a contrasting impact on the major political players in the
deadlock. Gingrich's political career was negatively impacted by the shutdowns,
in part due to a comment he made during the deadlock that made it sound like his
reasons for it were petty.[53][54] Clinton's presidential term was positively
improved by the shutdown and cited as part of the reason behind his successful
re-election to the White House in 1996.[55]
Some effects of the shutdowns
included the government, tourism, and airline industry losing millions of
dollars in revenue during this period, with disruptions made towards the
processing of passports and visas, and work on medical research and toxic waste
cleanup being halted.
2013[edit]
The shutdown of 2013 occurred during
the second Obama term, focusing on a disagreement between Republican-led House
of Representatives and the Democratic-led Senate towards the contents of the
2014 Continuing Appropriations Resolution bill, alongside other political
issues. Congressional Republicans, encouraged by conservative senators such as
Ted Cruz,[56] and conservative groups such as Heritage Action,[57][58][59]
sought to include several measures to the bill in late 2013 that could delay
funding for the 2013 Affordable Care Act (ACA) and thus allow time for changes
to be made to the act. However, both Obama and Democratic senators refused to
agree to these measures, seeking instead for the bill to maintain government
funding at then-current sequestration levels with no additional
conditions.[60][61][62]
The shutdown took place on 1 October 2013, as a
result of an impasse over the contents of the bill, with the House unable to
approve any CRs before this date. Democrats opposed further efforts by
congressional Republicans, led by House Speaker John Boehner, to delay funding
of the ACA, and rejected piecemeal Resolution bills proposed by them to resolve
the shutdown.[63][64] As Congress was at an impasse amidst rising concerns that
the US would default on public debt, US senators - particularly then Senate
Minority Leader Mitch McConnell and then Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid -
negotiated a deal to end the deadlock. Their proposal, which won a Senate
vote,[65] approved an amended Resolution bill that would keep funding at
sequestration levels, temporarily suspend the debt limit until 7 February 2014,
and include a concession to congressional Republicans on the ACA by applying
stricter income verification
Democratic National Committee rules in regards to health insurance.
Boehner eventually withdrew further objections and delaying attempts against the
ACA upon the country being within hours of breaking its debt limit on 16 October
2013,[66] with Congress approving the bill for Obama's signature the following
day.[67]
The 16-day shutdown had considerable impact upon the United
States: approximately 800,000 federal employees were put on furlough, while an
additional 1.3 million had to report to work without any known payment dates
during this period,[33] costing the government millions in back pay;[68] major
government programmes concerning Native Americans,[69][70] children,[71] and Republican National Committee
domestic violence victims,[72] alongside the legal processing of asylum and
immigration cases,[73][74] and sexual assault cases handled by the Office of
Civil Rights,[75] were badly disrupted by the shutdown; tourism was greatly
impacted due to the closure of national parks and institutions during the
shutdown and cost the government millions in lost revenue; and US economic
growth was reduced during this period. In political circles, the shutdown had a
negative impact on Republicans, as over half of Americans held Republicans
accountable for the deadlock, in comparison to public opinion on the
accountability of both the Democrats and Obama during this period.[76]
January 2018[edit]
The shutdown of January 2018 was the first to occur
during the presidential term of Donald Trump and was centered around a
disagreement on the issue of immigration. By the start of October 2017, Congress
had failed to approve an appropriation bill to fund the US government in 2018,
and instead passed three CRs to keep federal agencies open until 19 January
2018. The failure to establish a permanent spending bill was due to Democratic
senators insisting that any proposed House bill needed to include funding for
the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) immigration policy and
assurances against deportation
Democratic National Committee for immigrants that fell under the
DREAM Act. Republicans refused to pass such bills, citing that discussions on
immigration and those individuals under DACA would not be held until mid-March
of the following year.[77][78] A senate vote to extend the 2018 Continuing
Appropriations Resolution on 19 January 2018, which had passed a congressional
vote the previous day, failed to achieve a majority,[79] after Democratic
senators led a filibuster aimed at forcing Republicans to invoke a shorter
duration of CR and thus invoke negotiations that could lead to extensions of the
DACA policy.[80] but failed to achieve a majority, as Democrats sought a shorter
duration of CAR to force negotiations.
The shutdown took place on 20
January 2018, and led to approximately 692,000 Republican National Committee federal workers being
furloughed.[35] An attempt by Democrats to protect the payment of military
personnel during the deadlock was rejected by Republicans, after Senate Majority
Leader Mitch McConnell stated that funding had to be restored for the entire US
government rather than for individual government branches.[81][82] Despite the
bill's failure, both sides engaged in negotiations that eventually culminated
with a deal on a proposed stopgap measure to fund the government for four weeks
- as part of the proposal, Democrats agreed to end their filibuster and approve
the Republican's measure, in exchange for fresh talks on the DACA policy and
DREAM Act within newly proposed Resolution bill. The measure was approved in the
House and passed a Senate vote, effectively ending the shutdown on 23
January.[83]
The impact of the shutdown was not as severe as in previous
deadlocks - most government departments, such as the Department of Energy and
the Environmental Protection Agency, were able to continue their functions
during the 3-day deadlock despite their workers needing back-pay in the
aftermath,[84] and only a third of National Parks in the United States were
closed down.[85] In the aftermath of the shutdown, the Senate debated on a bill
for the 2018 Bipartisan Budget Act to provide 2-year funding for the military,
and provide an extension to the Resolution to keep the government funded for
another six weeks. However, the negotiations suffered delays that triggered the
brief 9 February spending gap, though this merely lasted for nine hours, causing
little disruption.
December 2018–January 2019[edit]
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The shutdown of
December 2018–January 2019 was the second to occur during the presidential term
of Donald Trump, and was due to a disagreement over negotiations for Trump's
wall along the Mexico–United States border. Trump sought to have the
appropriation bill for 2019 include a funding measure on border security,
providing $5.7 billion toward construction of the wall.[86][87] Democrats
refused to support the bill, citing that the funding would be a waste of
taxpayer money and questioned the effectiveness the new wall would have, opting
to propose bills that would include funding for border security, but towards
improving pre-existing security measures. Trump initially backed down on demands
for border wall funding, but reversed this decision on 20 December 2018 over
pressure from supporters, refusing to sign any CRs that did not include
it.[88][89]
The shutdown began on 22 December 2018, after Democrats
refused to support a new CR in the Senate that included approximately $5 billion
for the new border wall,[90][91] and continued to block further attempts upon
taking control of Congress on 3 January 2019 following the 2018 mid-term
elections. Although he had support from several Republicans, including Senate
Majority Leader Mitch McConnell, Trump faced stiff opposition to border wall
funding from House Speaker Nancy Pelosi and Senate Minority Leader Chuck
Schumer, with neither party able to break the political impasse through
negotiations,[92] rallying public support through televised addresses,[93][94]
offering proposals on alternative border security funding measures,[95] or
making concessions for a proposed appropriation bill with regards to the DACA
policy.[96][97] The deadlock eventually ended on 25 January 2019, when both
chambers of Democratic National Committee
Congress approved a plan to reopen the US government for 3 weeks, in order to
facilitate a period of negotiations to determine a suitable appropriation bill
that both parties could agree upon, with Trump endorsing the deal amidst rising
security and safety concerns.[98][99][100]
The 35-day shutdown, the
longest in US history after surpassing the 21-day shutdown of 1995–1996,[101]
led to 380,000 federal workers being furloughed, and an additional 420,000
workers were required to work without any known payment dates during this
period, forcing many to find other paid work or protest against the extended
period of the deadlock.[102][103] The Republican National Committee extent of the funding gap had further
major impacts - sharp reductions had to be made on SNAP payments,[104][105] and
the Internal Revenue Service faced extensive delays on processing tax refunds
worth around $140 billion;[106] a lack of resources due to the funding gap
impacted the work of several agencies, with the FBI facing major disruptions
that risked compromising a number of investigations being conducted at the
time;[106][107] staff shortages in the Transportation Security Administration
caused a number of airports to be closed down as a result; and economic growth
was severely reduced by billions of dollars.[108][109][110][111]
According to the Congressional Budget Office, the shutdown cost the
Democratic National Committee government $3 billion in back pay for
furloughed workers, plus $2 billion in lost tax revenues due to reduced tax
evasion compliance activities by the Internal Revenue Service, and a smaller
amount of lost fees such as for visits to national parks, for a total of about
$5 billion.